The purpose of this paper is to recommend a prohibition of the use of copper sulfate, a toxic and bioaccumulative chemical, in America’s waters.

Background

Copper sulfate, a naturally occurring inorganic salt, is an algaecide, herbicide, germicide, and fungicide and is commonly used to maintain the aesthetic appearance of lakes, reservoirs, and ponds.  Being a trace element, its poisonous effects can be detected at levels as low as .33ppm, and its toxic potency is inversely related to the alkalinity and pH of water.[1] Copper sulfate is typically applied on a bi-weekly schedule, and what does not flow out of a water body into a receiving stream ends up binding to the underlying sediment. Here, this heavy metal accumulates indefinitely, serving as a reservoir of toxicity until the sediment is disturbed and conditions favor its release into the environment.

Because of its highly caustic nature, copper sulfate has been classified by the EPA as being in toxicity class I – highly toxic – and requires the signal words “DANGER – POISON” on its container.  Having the direct potential to disrupt photosynthesis, and because of its toxicity to downstream endangered species, its use requires a permit in certain jurisdictions and applications.[2]

Copper sulfate’s toxicity and propensity for accumulation is leading to a burgeoning problem at sites located throughout the US and the world.  Copper pollution is beginning to affect many coastal regions where river and storm water systems discharge; sites experiencing hazardously elevated levels of copper include: Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Naples Bay, North Miami, and Lake Pontchartrain.[3] In some cases, “[copper sulfate]…is the largest contributor to copper contamination.”[4]

As the effects of copper compounds and their persistence in coastal areas become better understood, some municipalities have included in their water resource management plans measures to reduce copper levels in stormwater discharge.  The application of copper sulfate as an algaecide has also been questioned in New York City, where authorities identified it as the primary cause of excessive copper levels in the City’s wastewaters and harbor.[5] However, in some cases, the specific regulatory approaches adopted have been criticized for their inefficiency.  San Francisco’s initiative to control copper contamination is estimated to have an end cost in excess of one billion dollars, primarily because of its inclusion of metallic copper, as well as all copper compounds, whatever their toxicity or fate.[6] Recent initiatives are taking a new direction, which is to improve upon water resources by targeting only volatile forms of copper, including copper sulfate.

Copper Sulfate: Detrimental to National Waters

Damaging Natural Habitats

The deleterious effects of copper sulfate on natural habitats have been widely documented. Long-term case studies have shown that, while algae is temporarily killed as intended, its decaying matter contributes heavily to dissolved oxygen depletion, fish kills, and the accelerated recycling of phosphorus which promotes algal blooms.[7] Eventually, the natural balance of the water body is upset: phytoplankton, the base of the food chain, are greatly reduced and no longer support small aquatic life; sediment-dwelling insects are killed by the accumulating poison; and plants, serving as both fish food and habitat, are killed by copper sulfate’s photosynthesis disruption.  After a local pond’s ecosystem has been become debilitated, the highly water-soluble residual algaecide is flushed downstream during a rain event, becoming a hazard for downstream organisms.

Catfish, one of the Fox River’s prime game fish, are visibly stressed by concentrations as low as 1.7ppm.  Enzyme activity in other fish increases due to stress at 2ppm, and the negative effects suffered were still observable after two weeks in clean water.[8] Furthermore, even at suggested application rates, the algaecide has been found to be lethal to salmonoids (e.g. salmon, trout, etc.).[9]

Animals that ingest copper sulfate by drinking from contaminated water bodies are also at risk as chronic exposures have lead to problems at levels as low as 20ppm per day—commonly leading to malfunction of the endocrine gland and testes.  After consumed, copper sulfate is strongly bioaccumulated, primarily in the heart, liver, brain, kidneys, and muscles of animals.[10]

Detrimental to Water Quality

As a treatment strategy, the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide addresses only the symptoms of the water body’s degraded condition, not the causes.[11] The underlying cause of the algal blooms is the urban runoff of fertilizers, detergents, and other phosphates.  The use of copper sulfate does nothing to minimize or manage these nutrients.  In fact, as a germicide, it destroys the beneficial bacteria that would naturally break down nutrients and, as an herbicide, kills plant life that would absorb them.

When this water is released into receiving streams, it brings with it the burden of excess nutrients and very low dissolved oxygen.  Considering that nutrient overabundance is already problematic for many  U.S. rivers and streams, any effort to lessen the problem should be taken.  This is especially important to downstream communities that already assume additional treatment costs to make water safe and potable for their residents.

Contributing to Pollution

Pollutants are defined as chemical constituents present at toxic levels and in bioavailable forms for a sufficient period that they adversely affect the beneficial uses of a water body.  Copper and its compounds are designated as pollutants, however it is the free form of the copper II ion that is biologically available and the most toxic form of this substance.  It is therefore important in creating a control approach to differentiate between sources such as metallic copper from brake pads and liners, and a wide array of ionic forms of copper of varying degrees of potential toxicity, the most problematic of which is copper sulfate.  Thus, environmental scientists continue to emphasize the importance of focusing “pollutant control on those chemical constituents that are significantly impairing…waterbody(s) within and downstream of the watershed.”[12]

Residents add copper sulfate to water bodies to satisfy an aesthetic desire, often without considering its potentially harmful effects.  This is especially true for storm detention ponds, which are increasingly seen as amenities and not as serving a specific, environmental function.  No longer should copper sulfate be permitted at the detriment of the local and downstream environments. An opportunity to remove an unnecessary, biologically available toxin from your local water bodies presents itself without significant drawbacks—and because of this, use of the copper sulfate pollutant should be forbidden.

On the Environmental Frontier

In considering a ban on copper sulfate, your community would not be unprecedented.  A number of jurisdictions are, or have, considered a ban on the use of copper sulfate.  Based on data revealing that copper “hot spots” coincide with storm water discharge points in the bay, the Naples City Council will consider a resolution in November 2008 that would prohibit the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide.  In early 2008, the City amended its budget, approving the installation of aerators in its stormwater retention ponds and lakes, in place of algaecide use to control algal blooms.13

Across the ocean from Naples, the European Union had scheduled a complete ban on all copper based algaecides because of the “effects of its use on the aquatic environment, impact on aquatic organisms, and soil accumulation.”[13] Reviewers found copper sulfate “not compatible with sustainable ecosystems and recommended against its use,” expressing concern about the impact it has when flushed into natural water bodies. [14] For these reasons, the review panel concluded that copper sulfate “should never be considered as a routine and convenient treatment to handle [algal] problems.”[15]

A Call to Action

As copper pollution becomes more widely recognized, more jurisdictions will move toward legislative and regulatory prohibitions targeting copper and its compounds.  Your local community has the opportunity to protect its ecosystems and preserve its vital water resources by preventing the intentional application of copper sulfate, a toxin and pollutant, to its waters.

By limiting this ban to copper sulfate as an algaecide, rather than more broadly to other copper species, smaller municipalities will be able to apply limited resources in the most beneficial and cost-effective manner.

References

1.  Iowa State University. Managing Iowa Fisheries: Use of Copper Compounds in Aquatic Systems.” http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM13521.pdf

2.  Extension Toxicology Network. Pesticide Information Profiles: Copper Sulfate. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/coppersu.htm

3.  Thomas O’Connor and Gunnar Lauenstein. “Status and trends of copper concentrations in mussels and oysters in the USA.” National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science in Marine Chemistry, no. 97 (2005) p 49-59.

4.  http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2008/may/24/federal-study-naples-bay-national-hot-spot-copper-/

5.  http://www.grredlee.com/wswqsour.htm

6.  http://www.gfredlee.com/watershe.htm

7.  Mark Hanson and Heinz Stefan. “Side effects of 58 years of copper sulfate treatment on the Fairmont Lakes, Minnesota.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Vol 2:6, pp 889-900. June 2007.

8.  European Union Technical Advisory Panel. “Copper sulfate for use as an algicide and invertebrate pest control,” September 2001. http://www.omri.org/coppersulfate.pdf

9.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

10.  Extension, Pesticide Profiles

11.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

12.  Lee, Aquatic Chemistry

13.  Personal Communication and Staats, Federal Study

14.  EU, Copper Sulfate for use

15.  Ibid.

16.  In light of these events, we have limited our recommendation to a ban on copper sulfate specifically for water applications.

The purpose of this paper is to recommend a prohibition of the use of copper sulfate, a toxic and bioaccumulative chemical, in America’s waters.

Background

Copper sulfate, a naturally occurring inorganic salt, is an algaecide, herbicide, germicide, and fungicide and is commonly used to maintain the aesthetic appearance of lakes, reservoirs, and ponds.  Being a trace element, its poisonous effects can be detected at levels as low as .33ppm, and its toxic potency is inversely related to the alkalinity and pH of water.[1] Copper sulfate is typically applied on a bi-weekly schedule, and what does not flow out of a water body into a receiving stream ends up binding to the underlying sediment. Here, this heavy metal accumulates indefinitely, serving as a reservoir of toxicity until the sediment is disturbed and conditions favor its release into the environment.

Because of its highly caustic nature, copper sulfate has been classified by the EPA as being in toxicity class I – highly toxic – and requires the signal words “DANGER – POISON” on its container.  Having the direct potential to disrupt photosynthesis, and because of its toxicity to downstream endangered species, its use requires a permit in certain jurisdictions and applications.[2]

Copper sulfate’s toxicity and propensity for accumulation is leading to a burgeoning problem at sites located throughout the US and the world.  Copper pollution is beginning to affect many coastal regions where river and storm water systems discharge; sites experiencing hazardously elevated levels of copper include: Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Naples Bay, North Miami, and Lake Pontchartrain.[3] In some cases, “[copper sulfate]…is the largest contributor to copper contamination.”[4]

As the effects of copper compounds and their persistence in coastal areas become better understood, some municipalities have included in their water resource management plans measures to reduce copper levels in stormwater discharge.  The application of copper sulfate as an algaecide has also been questioned in New York City, where authorities identified it as the primary cause of excessive copper levels in the City’s wastewaters and harbor.[5] However, in some cases, the specific regulatory approaches adopted have been criticized for their inefficiency.  San Francisco’s initiative to control copper contamination is estimated to have an end cost in excess of one billion dollars, primarily because of its inclusion of metallic copper, as well as all copper compounds, whatever their toxicity or fate.[6] Recent initiatives are taking a new direction, which is to improve upon water resources by targeting only volatile forms of copper, including copper sulfate.

Copper Sulfate: Detrimental to National Waters

Damaging Natural Habitats

The deleterious effects of copper sulfate on natural habitats have been widely documented. Long-term case studies have shown that, while algae is temporarily killed as intended, its decaying matter contributes heavily to dissolved oxygen depletion, fish kills, and the accelerated recycling of phosphorus which promotes algal blooms.[7] Eventually, the natural balance of the water body is upset: phytoplankton, the base of the food chain, are greatly reduced and no longer support small aquatic life; sediment-dwelling insects are killed by the accumulating poison; and plants, serving as both fish food and habitat, are killed by copper sulfate’s photosynthesis disruption.  After a local pond’s ecosystem has been become debilitated, the highly water-soluble residual algaecide is flushed downstream during a rain event, becoming a hazard for downstream organisms.

Catfish, one of the Fox River’s prime game fish, are visibly stressed by concentrations as low as 1.7ppm.  Enzyme activity in other fish increases due to stress at 2ppm, and the negative effects suffered were still observable after two weeks in clean water.[8] Furthermore, even at suggested application rates, the algaecide has been found to be lethal to salmonoids (e.g. salmon, trout, etc.).[9]

Animals that ingest copper sulfate by drinking from contaminated water bodies are also at risk as chronic exposures have lead to problems at levels as low as 20ppm per day—commonly leading to malfunction of the endocrine gland and testes.  After consumed, copper sulfate is strongly bioaccumulated, primarily in the heart, liver, brain, kidneys, and muscles of animals.[10]

Detrimental to Water Quality

As a treatment strategy, the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide addresses only the symptoms of the water body’s degraded condition, not the causes.[11] The underlying cause of the algal blooms is the urban runoff of fertilizers, detergents, and other phosphates.  The use of copper sulfate does nothing to minimize or manage these nutrients.  In fact, as a germicide, it destroys the beneficial bacteria that would naturally break down nutrients and, as an herbicide, kills plant life that would absorb them.

When this water is released into receiving streams, it brings with it the burden of excess nutrients and very low dissolved oxygen.  Considering that nutrient overabundance is already problematic for many  U.S. rivers and streams, any effort to lessen the problem should be taken.  This is especially important to downstream communities that already assume additional treatment costs to make water safe and potable for their residents.

Contributing to Pollution

Pollutants are defined as chemical constituents present at toxic levels and in bioavailable forms for a sufficient period that they adversely affect the beneficial uses of a water body.  Copper and its compounds are designated as pollutants, however it is the free form of the copper II ion that is biologically available and the most toxic form of this substance.  It is therefore important in creating a control approach to differentiate between sources such as metallic copper from brake pads and liners, and a wide array of ionic forms of copper of varying degrees of potential toxicity, the most problematic of which is copper sulfate.  Thus, environmental scientists continue to emphasize the importance of focusing “pollutant control on those chemical constituents that are significantly impairing…waterbody(s) within and downstream of the watershed.”[12]

Residents add copper sulfate to water bodies to satisfy an aesthetic desire, often without considering its potentially harmful effects.  This is especially true for storm detention ponds, which are increasingly seen as amenities and not as serving a specific, environmental function.  No longer should copper sulfate be permitted at the detriment of the local and downstream environments. An opportunity to remove an unnecessary, biologically available toxin from your local water bodies presents itself without significant drawbacks—and because of this, use of the copper sulfate pollutant should be forbidden.

On the Environmental Frontier

In considering a ban on copper sulfate, your community would not be unprecedented.  A number of jurisdictions are, or have, considered a ban on the use of copper sulfate.  Based on data revealing that copper “hot spots” coincide with storm water discharge points in the bay, the Naples City Council will consider a resolution in November 2008 that would prohibit the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide.  In early 2008, the City amended its budget, approving the installation of aerators in its stormwater retention ponds and lakes, in place of algaecide use to control algal blooms.13

Across the ocean from Naples, the European Union had scheduled a complete ban on all copper based algaecides because of the “effects of its use on the aquatic environment, impact on aquatic organisms, and soil accumulation.”[13] Reviewers found copper sulfate “not compatible with sustainable ecosystems and recommended against its use,” expressing concern about the impact it has when flushed into natural water bodies. [14] For these reasons, the review panel concluded that copper sulfate “should never be considered as a routine and convenient treatment to handle [algal] problems.”[15]

A Call to Action

As copper pollution becomes more widely recognized, more jurisdictions will move toward legislative and regulatory prohibitions targeting copper and its compounds.  Your local community has the opportunity to protect its ecosystems and preserve its vital water resources by preventing the intentional application of copper sulfate, a toxin and pollutant, to its waters.

By limiting this ban to copper sulfate as an algaecide, rather than more broadly to other copper species, smaller municipalities will be able to apply limited resources in the most beneficial and cost-effective manner.

References

1.  Iowa State University. Managing Iowa Fisheries: Use of Copper Compounds in Aquatic Systems.” http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM13521.pdf

2.  Extension Toxicology Network. Pesticide Information Profiles: Copper Sulfate. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/coppersu.htm

3.  Thomas O’Connor and Gunnar Lauenstein. “Status and trends of copper concentrations in mussels and oysters in the USA.” National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science in Marine Chemistry, no. 97 (2005) p 49-59.

4.  http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2008/may/24/federal-study-naples-bay-national-hot-spot-copper-/

5.  http://www.grredlee.com/wswqsour.htm

6.  http://www.gfredlee.com/watershe.htm

7.  Mark Hanson and Heinz Stefan. “Side effects of 58 years of copper sulfate treatment on the Fairmont Lakes, Minnesota.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Vol 2:6, pp 889-900. June 2007.

8.  European Union Technical Advisory Panel. “Copper sulfate for use as an algicide and invertebrate pest control,” September 2001. http://www.omri.org/coppersulfate.pdf

9.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

10.  Extension, Pesticide Profiles

11.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

12.  Lee, Aquatic Chemistry

13.  Personal Communication and Staats, Federal Study

14.  EU, Copper Sulfate for use

15.  Ibid.

16.  In light of these events, we have limited our recommendation to a ban on copper sulfate specifically for water applications.

The purpose of this paper is to recommend a prohibition of the use of copper sulfate, a toxic and bioaccumulative chemical, in America’s waters.

Background

Copper sulfate, a naturally occurring inorganic salt, is an algaecide, herbicide, germicide, and fungicide and is commonly used to maintain the aesthetic appearance of lakes, reservoirs, and ponds.  Being a trace element, its poisonous effects can be detected at levels as low as .33ppm, and its toxic potency is inversely related to the alkalinity and pH of water.[1] Copper sulfate is typically applied on a bi-weekly schedule, and what does not flow out of a water body into a receiving stream ends up binding to the underlying sediment. Here, this heavy metal accumulates indefinitely, serving as a reservoir of toxicity until the sediment is disturbed and conditions favor its release into the environment.

Because of its highly caustic nature, copper sulfate has been classified by the EPA as being in toxicity class I – highly toxic – and requires the signal words “DANGER – POISON” on its container.  Having the direct potential to disrupt photosynthesis, and because of its toxicity to downstream endangered species, its use requires a permit in certain jurisdictions and applications.[2]

Copper sulfate’s toxicity and propensity for accumulation is leading to a burgeoning problem at sites located throughout the US and the world.  Copper pollution is beginning to affect many coastal regions where river and storm water systems discharge; sites experiencing hazardously elevated levels of copper include: Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Naples Bay, North Miami, and Lake Pontchartrain.[3] In some cases, “[copper sulfate]…is the largest contributor to copper contamination.”[4]

As the effects of copper compounds and their persistence in coastal areas become better understood, some municipalities have included in their water resource management plans measures to reduce copper levels in stormwater discharge.  The application of copper sulfate as an algaecide has also been questioned in New York City, where authorities identified it as the primary cause of excessive copper levels in the City’s wastewaters and harbor.[5] However, in some cases, the specific regulatory approaches adopted have been criticized for their inefficiency.  San Francisco’s initiative to control copper contamination is estimated to have an end cost in excess of one billion dollars, primarily because of its inclusion of metallic copper, as well as all copper compounds, whatever their toxicity or fate.[6] Recent initiatives are taking a new direction, which is to improve upon water resources by targeting only volatile forms of copper, including copper sulfate.

Copper Sulfate: Detrimental to National Waters

Damaging Natural Habitats

The deleterious effects of copper sulfate on natural habitats have been widely documented. Long-term case studies have shown that, while algae is temporarily killed as intended, its decaying matter contributes heavily to dissolved oxygen depletion, fish kills, and the accelerated recycling of phosphorus which promotes algal blooms.[7] Eventually, the natural balance of the water body is upset: phytoplankton, the base of the food chain, are greatly reduced and no longer support small aquatic life; sediment-dwelling insects are killed by the accumulating poison; and plants, serving as both fish food and habitat, are killed by copper sulfate’s photosynthesis disruption.  After a local pond’s ecosystem has been become debilitated, the highly water-soluble residual algaecide is flushed downstream during a rain event, becoming a hazard for downstream organisms.

Catfish, one of the Fox River’s prime game fish, are visibly stressed by concentrations as low as 1.7ppm.  Enzyme activity in other fish increases due to stress at 2ppm, and the negative effects suffered were still observable after two weeks in clean water.[8] Furthermore, even at suggested application rates, the algaecide has been found to be lethal to salmonoids (e.g. salmon, trout, etc.).[9]

Animals that ingest copper sulfate by drinking from contaminated water bodies are also at risk as chronic exposures have lead to problems at levels as low as 20ppm per day—commonly leading to malfunction of the endocrine gland and testes.  After consumed, copper sulfate is strongly bioaccumulated, primarily in the heart, liver, brain, kidneys, and muscles of animals.[10]

Detrimental to Water Quality

As a treatment strategy, the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide addresses only the symptoms of the water body’s degraded condition, not the causes.[11] The underlying cause of the algal blooms is the urban runoff of fertilizers, detergents, and other phosphates.  The use of copper sulfate does nothing to minimize or manage these nutrients.  In fact, as a germicide, it destroys the beneficial bacteria that would naturally break down nutrients and, as an herbicide, kills plant life that would absorb them.

When this water is released into receiving streams, it brings with it the burden of excess nutrients and very low dissolved oxygen.  Considering that nutrient overabundance is already problematic for many  U.S. rivers and streams, any effort to lessen the problem should be taken.  This is especially important to downstream communities that already assume additional treatment costs to make water safe and potable for their residents.

Contributing to Pollution

Pollutants are defined as chemical constituents present at toxic levels and in bioavailable forms for a sufficient period that they adversely affect the beneficial uses of a water body.  Copper and its compounds are designated as pollutants, however it is the free form of the copper II ion that is biologically available and the most toxic form of this substance.  It is therefore important in creating a control approach to differentiate between sources such as metallic copper from brake pads and liners, and a wide array of ionic forms of copper of varying degrees of potential toxicity, the most problematic of which is copper sulfate.  Thus, environmental scientists continue to emphasize the importance of focusing “pollutant control on those chemical constituents that are significantly impairing…waterbody(s) within and downstream of the watershed.”[12]

Residents add copper sulfate to water bodies to satisfy an aesthetic desire, often without considering its potentially harmful effects.  This is especially true for storm detention ponds, which are increasingly seen as amenities and not as serving a specific, environmental function.  No longer should copper sulfate be permitted at the detriment of the local and downstream environments. An opportunity to remove an unnecessary, biologically available toxin from your local water bodies presents itself without significant drawbacks—and because of this, use of the copper sulfate pollutant should be forbidden.

On the Environmental Frontier

In considering a ban on copper sulfate, your community would not be unprecedented.  A number of jurisdictions are, or have, considered a ban on the use of copper sulfate.  Based on data revealing that copper “hot spots” coincide with storm water discharge points in the bay, the Naples City Council will consider a resolution in November 2008 that would prohibit the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide.  In early 2008, the City amended its budget, approving the installation of aerators in its stormwater retention ponds and lakes, in place of algaecide use to control algal blooms.13

Across the ocean from Naples, the European Union had scheduled a complete ban on all copper based algaecides because of the “effects of its use on the aquatic environment, impact on aquatic organisms, and soil accumulation.”[13] Reviewers found copper sulfate “not compatible with sustainable ecosystems and recommended against its use,” expressing concern about the impact it has when flushed into natural water bodies. [14] For these reasons, the review panel concluded that copper sulfate “should never be considered as a routine and convenient treatment to handle [algal] problems.”[15]

A Call to Action

As copper pollution becomes more widely recognized, more jurisdictions will move toward legislative and regulatory prohibitions targeting copper and its compounds.  Your local community has the opportunity to protect its ecosystems and preserve its vital water resources by preventing the intentional application of copper sulfate, a toxin and pollutant, to its waters.

By limiting this ban to copper sulfate as an algaecide, rather than more broadly to other copper species, smaller municipalities will be able to apply limited resources in the most beneficial and cost-effective manner.

References

1.  Iowa State University. Managing Iowa Fisheries: Use of Copper Compounds in Aquatic Systems.” http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM13521.pdf

2.  Extension Toxicology Network. Pesticide Information Profiles: Copper Sulfate. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/coppersu.htm

3.  Thomas O’Connor and Gunnar Lauenstein. “Status and trends of copper concentrations in mussels and oysters in the USA.” National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science in Marine Chemistry, no. 97 (2005) p 49-59.

4.  http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2008/may/24/federal-study-naples-bay-national-hot-spot-copper-/

5.  http://www.grredlee.com/wswqsour.htm

6.  http://www.gfredlee.com/watershe.htm

7.  Mark Hanson and Heinz Stefan. “Side effects of 58 years of copper sulfate treatment on the Fairmont Lakes, Minnesota.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Vol 2:6, pp 889-900. June 2007.

8.  European Union Technical Advisory Panel. “Copper sulfate for use as an algicide and invertebrate pest control,” September 2001. http://www.omri.org/coppersulfate.pdf

9.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

10.  Extension, Pesticide Profiles

11.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

12.  Lee, Aquatic Chemistry

13.  Personal Communication and Staats, Federal Study

14.  EU, Copper Sulfate for use

15.  Ibid.

16.  In light of these events, we have limited our recommendation to a ban on copper sulfate specifically for water applications.

The purpose of this paper is to recommend a prohibition of the use of copper sulfate, a toxic and bioaccumulative chemical, in America’s waters.

Background

Copper sulfate, a naturally occurring inorganic salt, is an algaecide, herbicide, germicide, and fungicide and is commonly used to maintain the aesthetic appearance of lakes, reservoirs, and ponds.  Being a trace element, its poisonous effects can be detected at levels as low as .33ppm, and its toxic potency is inversely related to the alkalinity and pH of water.[1] Copper sulfate is typically applied on a bi-weekly schedule, and what does not flow out of a water body into a receiving stream ends up binding to the underlying sediment. Here, this heavy metal accumulates indefinitely, serving as a reservoir of toxicity until the sediment is disturbed and conditions favor its release into the environment.

Because of its highly caustic nature, copper sulfate has been classified by the EPA as being in toxicity class I – highly toxic – and requires the signal words “DANGER – POISON” on its container.  Having the direct potential to disrupt photosynthesis, and because of its toxicity to downstream endangered species, its use requires a permit in certain jurisdictions and applications.[2]

Copper sulfate’s toxicity and propensity for accumulation is leading to a burgeoning problem at sites located throughout the US and the world.  Copper pollution is beginning to affect many coastal regions where river and storm water systems discharge; sites experiencing hazardously elevated levels of copper include: Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, Naples Bay, North Miami, and Lake Pontchartrain.[3] In some cases, “[copper sulfate]…is the largest contributor to copper contamination.”[4]

As the effects of copper compounds and their persistence in coastal areas become better understood, some municipalities have included in their water resource management plans measures to reduce copper levels in stormwater discharge.  The application of copper sulfate as an algaecide has also been questioned in New York City, where authorities identified it as the primary cause of excessive copper levels in the City’s wastewaters and harbor.[5] However, in some cases, the specific regulatory approaches adopted have been criticized for their inefficiency.  San Francisco’s initiative to control copper contamination is estimated to have an end cost in excess of one billion dollars, primarily because of its inclusion of metallic copper, as well as all copper compounds, whatever their toxicity or fate.[6] Recent initiatives are taking a new direction, which is to improve upon water resources by targeting only volatile forms of copper, including copper sulfate.

Copper Sulfate: Detrimental to National Waters

Damaging Natural Habitats

The deleterious effects of copper sulfate on natural habitats have been widely documented. Long-term case studies have shown that, while algae is temporarily killed as intended, its decaying matter contributes heavily to dissolved oxygen depletion, fish kills, and the accelerated recycling of phosphorus which promotes algal blooms.[7] Eventually, the natural balance of the water body is upset: phytoplankton, the base of the food chain, are greatly reduced and no longer support small aquatic life; sediment-dwelling insects are killed by the accumulating poison; and plants, serving as both fish food and habitat, are killed by copper sulfate’s photosynthesis disruption.  After a local pond’s ecosystem has been become debilitated, the highly water-soluble residual algaecide is flushed downstream during a rain event, becoming a hazard for downstream organisms.

Catfish, one of the Fox River’s prime game fish, are visibly stressed by concentrations as low as 1.7ppm.  Enzyme activity in other fish increases due to stress at 2ppm, and the negative effects suffered were still observable after two weeks in clean water.[8] Furthermore, even at suggested application rates, the algaecide has been found to be lethal to salmonoids (e.g. salmon, trout, etc.).[9]

Animals that ingest copper sulfate by drinking from contaminated water bodies are also at risk as chronic exposures have lead to problems at levels as low as 20ppm per day—commonly leading to malfunction of the endocrine gland and testes.  After consumed, copper sulfate is strongly bioaccumulated, primarily in the heart, liver, brain, kidneys, and muscles of animals.[10]

Detrimental to Water Quality

As a treatment strategy, the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide addresses only the symptoms of the water body’s degraded condition, not the causes.[11] The underlying cause of the algal blooms is the urban runoff of fertilizers, detergents, and other phosphates.  The use of copper sulfate does nothing to minimize or manage these nutrients.  In fact, as a germicide, it destroys the beneficial bacteria that would naturally break down nutrients and, as an herbicide, kills plant life that would absorb them.

When this water is released into receiving streams, it brings with it the burden of excess nutrients and very low dissolved oxygen.  Considering that nutrient overabundance is already problematic for many  U.S. rivers and streams, any effort to lessen the problem should be taken.  This is especially important to downstream communities that already assume additional treatment costs to make water safe and potable for their residents.

Contributing to Pollution

Pollutants are defined as chemical constituents present at toxic levels and in bioavailable forms for a sufficient period that they adversely affect the beneficial uses of a water body.  Copper and its compounds are designated as pollutants, however it is the free form of the copper II ion that is biologically available and the most toxic form of this substance.  It is therefore important in creating a control approach to differentiate between sources such as metallic copper from brake pads and liners, and a wide array of ionic forms of copper of varying degrees of potential toxicity, the most problematic of which is copper sulfate.  Thus, environmental scientists continue to emphasize the importance of focusing “pollutant control on those chemical constituents that are significantly impairing…waterbody(s) within and downstream of the watershed.”[12]

Residents add copper sulfate to water bodies to satisfy an aesthetic desire, often without considering its potentially harmful effects.  This is especially true for storm detention ponds, which are increasingly seen as amenities and not as serving a specific, environmental function.  No longer should copper sulfate be permitted at the detriment of the local and downstream environments. An opportunity to remove an unnecessary, biologically available toxin from your local water bodies presents itself without significant drawbacks—and because of this, use of the copper sulfate pollutant should be forbidden.

On the Environmental Frontier

In considering a ban on copper sulfate, your community would not be unprecedented.  A number of jurisdictions are, or have, considered a ban on the use of copper sulfate.  Based on data revealing that copper “hot spots” coincide with storm water discharge points in the bay, the Naples City Council will consider a resolution in November 2008 that would prohibit the use of copper sulfate as an algaecide.  In early 2008, the City amended its budget, approving the installation of aerators in its stormwater retention ponds and lakes, in place of algaecide use to control algal blooms.13

Across the ocean from Naples, the European Union had scheduled a complete ban on all copper based algaecides because of the “effects of its use on the aquatic environment, impact on aquatic organisms, and soil accumulation.”[13] Reviewers found copper sulfate “not compatible with sustainable ecosystems and recommended against its use,” expressing concern about the impact it has when flushed into natural water bodies. [14] For these reasons, the review panel concluded that copper sulfate “should never be considered as a routine and convenient treatment to handle [algal] problems.”[15]

A Call to Action

As copper pollution becomes more widely recognized, more jurisdictions will move toward legislative and regulatory prohibitions targeting copper and its compounds.  Your local community has the opportunity to protect its ecosystems and preserve its vital water resources by preventing the intentional application of copper sulfate, a toxin and pollutant, to its waters.

By limiting this ban to copper sulfate as an algaecide, rather than more broadly to other copper species, smaller municipalities will be able to apply limited resources in the most beneficial and cost-effective manner.

References

1.  Iowa State University. Managing Iowa Fisheries: Use of Copper Compounds in Aquatic Systems.” http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM13521.pdf

2.  Extension Toxicology Network. Pesticide Information Profiles: Copper Sulfate. http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/coppersu.htm

3.  Thomas O’Connor and Gunnar Lauenstein. “Status and trends of copper concentrations in mussels and oysters in the USA.” National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science in Marine Chemistry, no. 97 (2005) p 49-59.

4.  http://www.naplesnews.com/news/2008/may/24/federal-study-naples-bay-national-hot-spot-copper-/

5.  http://www.grredlee.com/wswqsour.htm

6.  http://www.gfredlee.com/watershe.htm

7.  Mark Hanson and Heinz Stefan. “Side effects of 58 years of copper sulfate treatment on the Fairmont Lakes, Minnesota.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association. Vol 2:6, pp 889-900. June 2007.

8.  European Union Technical Advisory Panel. “Copper sulfate for use as an algicide and invertebrate pest control,” September 2001. http://www.omri.org/coppersulfate.pdf

9.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

10.  Extension, Pesticide Profiles

11.  ISU, Managing Iowa Fisheries

12.  Lee, Aquatic Chemistry

13.  Personal Communication and Staats, Federal Study

14.  EU, Copper Sulfate for use

15.  Ibid.

16.  In light of these events, we have limited our recommendation to a ban on copper sulfate specifically for water applications.

Our earth is covered by 71% water. Sounds like a lot doesn’t it? With so much water on this planet why be concerned about turning on the tap and using as much as we want? Well let’s take a closer look at what this 71% is really saying:

Of that 71%, the salt-water oceans and other large bodies hold approximately 97% of the total water.

Of the remaining water, 1.6% of the water is below ground in aquifers.

0.001% is in the air as vapor, clouds and precipitation.

Glaciers and polar ice caps hold 2.4%.

Land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds makes up only approximately 0.6%.

A very small amount of the Earth’s water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.

Of the available fresh water approximately 70 percent of freshwater is consumed by agriculture to produce food for all of us.

Some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability, a situation which has been called a water crisis by the United Nations.

No matter how you arrange the numbers it sounds grim doesn’t it? Perhaps. The sad fact is that for most people in the industrialized world, more than enough water passes within their grasp to meet the majority of their needs. At least the needs of their outdoor world. Sadly, for most of us in the modern world, it is all to often taken entirely for granted. We turn on the tap and expect it to be there, without so much as a thought of what it takes to get it there or from where it comes. Water, more precious than oil, fine gems or precious metals sustains life and has been attributed as a gift from both God and the gods (little “g”). It is fought over, rationed, monitored and carefully controlled. Yet seldom respected, protected or cherished.

The Scenario

Water flows through or lives to the point we seldom give a thought to it, especially after it has served the immediate purpose for which we summoned it. We take a drink from a glass filled with much more than we want to consume, drawn from a faucet that we have let run until the water is cool and afterward pour out, often more than we consume, the remainder to disappear into our sewers. We wash our vehicles on our dutifully paved driveways and watch as it runs off into the storm sewer, taking with it all that detracts from our symbol of status or pride like a loyal servant.

In our evermore health conscious world, we wash and rewash our hands, allowing the powerful solvent abilities of water to carry away all that might cause us biological harm, never giving thought to the fact that waters abilities are far from being utilized. We faithfully take our cleansing showers in order to maintain that “acceptable” level of personal hygiene and in the process run countless gallons of water down the drain until the over consuming shower reaches that “just right” temperature.

Outside, we have carefully planted and manicured expanses of high maintenance grass, watered and fertilized to that perfect look and our planting beds are filled with all of the most popular non-native and often exotic plants. Perhaps the beds were once covered with mulch, but it has long since broken down and weeds have become a familiar sight. We faithfully rely on automatic sprinkler systems to keep everything green and lush so that our piece of the world meets with the approval of all around us. The timers are set and everything comes on regular as clockwork regardless of the weather or need and much of the water gets applied to sidewalks and driveways that need it not.

We go back inside because we’re hungry. We get out lettuce and tomato’s and dutifully wash them under running water because we’re very health conscious and are concerned about pesticides left on our food. We rely on the cleansing power of water to carry away all that we wish not consume and are proud of our conscious decision to live healthier. After finishing our food, we dutifully put the few dishes and utensils we dirtied into the dish washer and turn it on because having dirty dishes sitting around is not cool. Having just come inside from being outdoors for our healthful walk, our clothes are dirty so we change and faithfully place them in the washer and turn it on so that dirty clothes don’t stack up.

We are proud of the fact that we surveyed the yard and everything is lush and green just as we expect it to be so that our neighbors will approve. But we failed to notice that one outdoor faucet is leaking and that our children failed to turn off the other one completely after playing with their water toys. Surveying the surroundings, we also failed to notice the puddles of water left at the bottom of that slope after the sprinkler system shut off. But all is green and lush. What’s the big deal? It’s just water – right?

Sound familiar? Sadly this occurrence is all to familiar in our comfortable industrialized societies anymore. All to often we have have become complacent and expectant of what has become a common commodity of our lives. But the reality is that water is not an unlimited resource and it does have its limitations. A reality that many have been made increasingly aware of through droughts, water rationing and strict management. Yet few of us have yet to come to the realization that wise use of water begins with each of us as individuals. We, as individuals are the single biggest user of water and wise use begins with us, our use, and expectations. Yes it true that industry and commerce are big users. But it is us, the individuals who use by far the most. Both in our personal lives and through our expectations in life.

Suggestions To Get Started

There is coming a day for all of us that this little appreciated, thought of and common resource is no longer a resource to be taken lightly and for some, that time has already come. Wise water use, like all green living, is not a thing to do, but rather a way of thinking that is developed over time and transformed into actions. It is not something that one can simply turn a switch, take a pill, or buy. But rather it is developed over time. Below is a list of suggestions to help get you started. Think of this like a test. How many do you do now? How many do you fail at? How many could you do?

Bathroom

When you are washing your hands, don’t let the water run while you lather.

If your shower can fill a one-gallon bucket in less than 20 seconds, then replace it with a low-flow shower-head. They’re inexpensive, easy to install, and can save your family more than 500 gallons a week.

Time your shower to keep it under 5 minutes. You’ll save up to 1000 gallons a month.

Install low-volume toilets.

Put food coloring in your toilet tank. If it seeps into the toilet bowl, you have a leak. It’s easy to fix, and you can save more than 600 gallons a month.

Plug the bathtub before turning the water on, then adjust the temperature as the tub fills up.

Turn off the water while you brush your teeth and save 4 gallons a minute. That’s 200 gallons a week for a family of four.

Make sure your toilet flapper doesn’t stick open after flushing.

Make sure there are aerators on all of your faucets. This decreases water flow and increases its effectiveness when washing hands, etc.

Install an instant water heater on your kitchen or bathroom sink so you don’t have to let the water run while it heats up. This will also reduce heating costs for your household.

Bathe your young children together.

If your toilet was installed prior to 1980, place a toilet dam, brick or bottle filled with water in your toilet tank to cut down on the amount of water used for each flush. Be sure these devices do not interfere with operating parts.

Turn the water off while you shampoo and condition your hair and you can save more than 50 gallons a week.

Turn off the water while you shave and you can save more than 50 gallons a week.

To save water and time, consider washing your face or brushing your teeth while in the shower.

Keep a bucket in the shower to catch water as it warms up or runs. Use this water to flush toilets or water plants.

Children

Teach your children to turn the faucets off tightly after each use.

Don’t buy recreational water toys that require a constant flow of water.

When the kids want to cool off, use the sprinkler in an area where your lawn needs it the most.

Garden

Plant during the spring or fall when the watering requirements are lower.

Use a layer of organic mulch around plants to reduce evaporation and save hundreds of gallons of water a year.

Choose a water-efficient drip irrigation system for trees, shrubs and flowers. Watering at the roots is very effective, be careful not to over water.

Water your plants deeply but less frequently to create healthier and stronger plants.

Group plants with the same watering needs together to get the most out of your watering time.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Start a compost pile. Using compost when you plant adds water-holding organic matter to the soil.

More plants die from over-watering than from under-watering. Be sure only to water plants when necessary.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Hardscape And Construction

Use porous materials for walkways and patios to keep water in your yard and prevent wasteful runoff.

Direct downspouts and other runoff towards shrubs and trees, or collect and use for your garden.

Home And Utilities

In many areas evaporative coolers are a popular form of cooling, but they require a seasonal maintenance checkup. For more efficient cooling, check your evaporative cooler annually.

Check your water meter and bill to track your water usage.

We’re more likely to notice leaky faucets indoors, but don’t forget to check outdoor faucets, pipes, and hoses for leaks.

Grab a wrench and fix that leaky faucet. It’s simple, inexpensive, and can save 140 gallons a week.

Make sure you know where your master water shut-off valve is located. This could save gallons of water and damage to your home if a pipe were to burst.

Winterize outdoor spigots when temps dip to 20 degrees F to prevent pipes from bursting or freezing.

Insulate hot water pipes so you don’t have to run as much water to get hot water to the faucet.

If you have an evaporative cooler or air conditioner, catch or direct the water drain to a flowerbed, tree, or your lawn.

Install water softening systems only when necessary. Save water and salt by running the minimum number of regenerations necessary to maintain water softness.

Listen for dripping faucets and toilets that flush themselves. Fixing a leak can save 500 gallons each month.

Have your plumber re-route your gray water to trees and gardens rather than letting it run into the sewer line. Check with your city codes, and if it isn’t allowed in your area, start a movement to get that changed.

Houseplants

If you accidentally drop ice cubes when filling your glass from the freezer, don’t throw them in the sink. Drop them in a house plant instead.

Collect the water you use for rinsing produce and reuse it to water houseplants.

When you have ice left in your cup from a take-out restaurant, don’t throw it in the trash, dump it on a plant.

Kitchen

When washing dishes by hand, don’t let the water run while rinsing. Fill one sink with wash water and the other with rinse water.

Use the garbage disposal sparingly. Compost instead and save gallons every time.

Keep a pitcher of water in the refrigerator instead of running the tap for cold drinks, so that every drop goes down you not the drain.

Wash your produce in the sink or a pan that is partially filled with water instead of running water from the tap.

When you shop for a new appliance, consider one offering cycle and load size adjustments. They are more water and energy-efficient than older appliances.

Designate one glass for your drinking water each day. This will cut down on the number of times you run your dishwasher.

Don’t use running water to thaw food.

Soak your pots and pans instead of letting the water run while you scrape them clean.

Make sure there are aerators on all of your faucets. This decreases water flow and increases its effectiveness when washing hands, etc.

Install an instant water heater on your kitchen or bathroom sink so you don’t have to let the water run while it heats up. This will also reduce heating costs for your household.

Cut back on rinsing if your dishwasher is new. Newer models clean more thoroughly than older ones.

Cook food in as little water as possible. This will also retain more of the nutrients.

Select the proper size pans for cooking. Large pans require more cooking water than may be necessary.

Throw trimmings and peelings from fruits and vegetables into your yard compost to prevent from using the garbage disposal.

Landscape

Plant during the spring or fall when the watering requirements are lower.

Use a layer of organic mulch around plants to reduce evaporation and save hundreds of gallons of water a year.

Choose a water-efficient drip irrigation system for trees, shrubs and flowers. Watering at the roots is very effective, be careful not to over water.

Reduce the amount of grass in your yard by planting shrubs, and ground cover with rock and granite mulching.

Water your plants deeply but less frequently to create healthier and stronger plants.

Group plants with the same watering needs together to get the most out of your watering time.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Next time you add or replace a flower or shrub, choose a low water use plant for year-round landscape color and save up to 550 gallons each year.

Landscape with Xeriscape trees, plants and ground covers. Call your local conservation office for more information about these water thrifty plants.

Leave lower branches on trees and shrubs and allow leaf litter to accumulate on top of the soil. This keeps the soil cooler and reduces evaporation.

More plants die from over-watering than from under-watering. Be sure only to water plants when necessary.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Laundry

Run your washing machine and dishwasher only when they are full and you could save 1000 gallons a month.

When you shop for a new appliance, consider one offering cycle and load size adjustments. They are more water and energy-efficient than older appliances.

When doing laundry, match the water level to the size of the load.

Lawns

Avoid planting turf in areas that are hard to water such as steep inclines and isolated strips along sidewalks and driveways.

Adjust your lawn mower to a higher setting. Longer grass shades root systems and holds soil moisture better than a closely clipped lawn.

Water your summer lawns one inch per week and your winter lawn one inch every two to three weeks.

Reduce the amount of grass in your yard by planting shrubs, and ground cover with rock and granite mulching.

Don’t water your lawn on windy days. After all, sidewalks and driveways don’t need water.

Only water your lawn when needed. You can tell this by simply walking across your lawn. If you leave footprints, it’s time to water. Consider installing moisture sensors.

When watering grass on steep slopes, use a soaker hose to prevent wasteful runoff.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Use a Tuna can or buy a rain gauge to track how much rain or irrigation your yard receives.

Use a screwdriver as a soil probe to test soil moisture. If it goes in easily, don’t water. Proper lawn watering can save thousands of gallons of water annually.

Avoid overseeding your lawn with winter grass. Once established, rye grass needs water every three to five days, whereas dormant Bermuda grass needs water only once a month.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Aerate your lawn. Punch holes in your lawn about six inches apart so water will reach the roots rather than run off the surface.

Miscellaneous

When you clean your fish tank, use the water you’ve drained on your plants. The water is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, providing you with a free and effective fertilizer.

Use a commercial car wash that recycles water.

Encourage your school system and local government to help develop and promote a water conservation ethic among children and adults.

Do one thing each day that will save water. Even if savings are small, every drop counts.

Drop that tissue in the trash instead of flushing it and save gallons every time.

Make suggestions to your employer to save water (and dollars) at work.

Support projects that use reclaimed waste-water for irrigation and other uses.

Encourage your friends and neighbors to be part of a water-conscious community.

Pick-up the phone and report significant water losses from broken pipes, open hydrants and errant sprinklers to the property owner or your water management district.

Outside Cleaning

Use a broom instead of a hose to clean your driveway or sidewalk and save 80 gallons or more of water every time.

Wash your car on the grass. This will water your lawn at the same time.

Use a hose nozzle and turn off the water while you wash your car and save more than 100 gallons.

Patio And Pool

Install covers on pools and spas and check for leaks around your pumps.

Periodically check your pool for leaks if you have an automatic refilling device.

Avoid installing ornamental water features and fountains that spray water into the air. Trickling or cascading fountains lose less water to evaporation.

Use a grease pencil to mark the water level of your pool at the skimmer. Check the mark 24 hours later. Your pool should lose no more than 1/4 inch each day.

Make sure your swimming pools, fountains, and ponds are equipped with recirculating pumps.

When back-washing your pool, consider using the water on your landscaping.

For hanging baskets, planters and pots, place ice cubes under the moss or dirt to give your plants a cool drink of water and help eliminate water overflow.

Regardless of size, when you drain the pool, use the water for the lawn and landscape plants. Concerned about chlorine and other pool chemicals? Leave the pool open for a few days and add a circulation pump (like a fountain pump) to circulate and agitate the water. The chlorine and other pool chemicals will naturally dissipate so the water can be safely used.

Pets

When you give your pet fresh water, don’t throw the old water down the drain. Use it to water your trees or shrubs.

Bathe your pets outdoors in an area in need of water.

Sprinklers

Check your sprinkler system frequently and adjust sprinklers so only your lawn is watered and not the house, sidewalk, or street.

Minimize evaporation by watering during the early morning hours, when temperatures are cooler and winds are lighter.

Divide your watering cycle into shorter periods to reduce runoff and allow for better absorption every time you water.

Use the sprinkler for larger areas of grass. Water small patches by hand to avoid waste.

Remember to check your sprinkler system valves periodically for leaks and keep the heads in good shape.

Install a rain shut-off device on your automatic sprinklers to eliminate unnecessary watering.

Teach your family how to shut off your automatic watering systems. Turn sprinklers off if the system is malfunctioning or when a storm is approaching.

Set a kitchen timer when watering your lawn or garden with a hose.

Use sprinklers that throw big drops of water close to the ground. Smaller drops of water and mist often evaporate before they hit the ground.

Adjust your watering schedule to the season. Summer lawns need watering less frequently than spring and fall lawns and winter lawns even less.

Travel

While staying in a hotel or even at home, consider reusing your towels.

Grey Water

Grey water is a term not heard much today, but older people will no doubt understand what it is. It basically means any water that is not fit for human consumption, but not no biologically hazardous to humans. In simpler terms, bath, laundry and dish water are all classified as “grey water”. Toilet water is not, and should only go into the public sewer or septic system. In days gone by, before governments wanted to control every facet of our lives, grey water was treated separately from toilet water. It was considered “reusable water” and routed differently from “sewer water”. Now, in the alleged interest of public safety, all “non-potable” water is routed to our public sewer or septic systems.

The truth is that grey water poses no threat to humans and in fact surrounded us, partially as in hand or dish washing, or entirely, as in a bath at some point in its life. This water can normally be reused to water lawns and gardens without harm to either plants, animals or humans. In fact, the soaps found in normal grey water is often an effective insect deterrent. The only potential harm would come from the additives that we have grown accustomed to having in our shampoos and soaps. These come in the form of fragrances, conditioners, colorings, etc. These things quite often may be desirable to us, but are not necessary in the products they come in. In fact, some have proven potentially harmful. But we still want the results regardless of the cost and manufacturers will spend countless millions of dollars annually to make us think they are a magic ingredient that will transform our lives.

In the days before chemicals, most soaps were forms of lye soap (even for bathing), which left little or no scent or conditioners, etc. These were applied afterward in the form or plant-based scents and other homemade recipes. In many studies and surveys, the results of these old methods were equal, or superior to any chemically induced results seen today and posed little potential harm to users, manufacturers or the environment. So effective were these, that many manufacturers are now attempting to go back to these simple products, but in a chemical way.

Consider using unscented products and those with the least amount of conditioners, colorings, etc. While perhaps not as convenient, these can be applied or used after we bathe, etc. if we feel they are absolutely necessary. Often, the end results of using less toxic products (or none at all) after we bathe are far superior to the results obtained by using the products with the additives included. The environment will certainly benefit from it.

Conclusion

Ours is a world of convenience. A convenience that one day may be a luxury we can not afford. As demands on our water resources increase along with the cost of producing it, feeding our vanity and convenience may become totally impractical. It is already irresponsible for all of us and unattainable for many. But change will not come come quickly or easily. It will require a dedicated effort of many small steps by all of us in order to become water efficient and wise consumers of this resource. What are you willing to do to become “water wise” and a responsible steward of this precious commodity? Are you willing to start taking those small steps toward water efficiency or are you one of the millions who will wait until you are forced to do so?  Will you be a part of the cure, or a part of the problem that our children and children’s children will have to face and correct? The choice is yours and mine. Choose wisely.

The top three cities according to the experts were Seattle, Boston, and Columbia, S.C.  For some reason I found it interesting that SALT LAKE was the best.  It seems like it should be SALTY (but what do I know).  I have visited Salt Lake City on several occassions and honestly the water did not leave a lasting impression on me.  I did enjoy some excellent green tea at a local area restaurant which I assume was made with their tap water.  That could have been the water or maybe it was the sugar in the sweet green tea (I remember this as I had never had sweet green tea before encountering it on this trip).

So before I venture too far away from the reason for this article let me provide the names of the taste testers to you.  They were none other than the famous wine tasters David Lynch and his colleague, Joe Bastianich.  They used words to describe water that I simply have never heard.  For instance the Salt Lake City water was “delicious, Viscous, thick and rich,”  Wow!  I need to go back to Salt Lake City and check this out again.  It certainly sounds awfully good described this way.  Well, actually delicious, viscous, and rich sound good.  I think I have tasted thick (growing up on well water which was plenty thick).

I dug into the ratings of Salt Lake City’s water according to studies performed by the Environmental Working Group and sure enough they did have pretty low levels of contaminants in their water.  Salt Lake City had 9 pollutants, Boston had 6 pollutants, and Columbia had 7 pollutants.  So, to my surprise the city with the lowest number of pollutants was not the winner.  Of course, this was an unofficial taste test and toally subjective (based on the opinions of these fine wine tasters).  Perhaps it means that my theory of cleaner water tasting better is simply not correct.  In any event it really is interesting to me.

So a few of my own theories were certainly not supported by the test performed on the Today show, but I did learn something very valuable.  I can now stop referring to water as hard or soft and introduce viscous and rich into the mix.  In any event, that certainly makes an ordinary glass of water more interesting.

On another note, If you have some time and are interested in the number of water companies in your community and/or anywhere in the country please stop by waterfinder.org and take a look.  It’s the only place on the web to find a listing of over 300,000 water companies in every major (and most of the smaller) cities in the U.S.

Turn on the Tap

According to the Think Outside the Bottle campaign, Americans are the world’s top consumers of bottled water while, ironically, the U.S. has one of the safest public water systems on the planet. So, why did the bottled water craze take the nation by storm? Some experts say it began as small status symbol, mimicking the bottled waters popular in France and Italy. But, as the sources of water changed and companies such as Coca Cola and Nestle entered the game, bottled water spilled over from simply posh to popular.

Too popular, according to nonprofit groups and environmental organizations. Americans spend a combined $11.7 billion annually on bottled water. The Container Recycling Institute (CRI) estimates that every person in the U.S. tosses 160 plastic bottles in the trash each year – or 8 out of every 10 bottles purchased. Given the preciousness of oil in the current economic climate, it’s also important to note that CRI says it takes 15 million barrels of oil per year to make plastic bottles for America’s bottled water addiction.

The Cost of Convenience

The convenience of bottled water has certainly added to its popularity. Think of Little League games, public events, road trips and that handy bottle at your desk. But now, as people become more aware of the environmental downsides of plastic containers and the questionable value of bottled water compared to tap water or filtered tap water, the tide may be turning.

A number of cities have ceased the once popular practice of providing bottled water for employees. In San Francisco, Mayor Gavin Newsom observed World Water Day in 2007 by canceling all the city’s bottled water contracts. Chicago and Salt Lake City followed suit. The popular Austin City Limits Music Festival stopped providing bottled water to its legion of volunteers and rewarded patrons who recycled bottles with a special T-shirt.

The world renown Chez Panisse in Berkeley calculated the carbon footprint of the bottles of sparkling water it imported from Italy and removed the bubbly from the menu. And, in Canada, a movement is sweeping the land. Students in colleges and high schools are protesting contracts with Coca-Cola and Pepsi for their bottled waters. The students are lapping up free, fresh water from school drinking fountains instead.

Questions of Quality

As bottled waters attract increased scrutiny, public water systems are measured against them for both cost and water quality. The cost factor is extremely compelling. A bottle of water costs a dollar and often more, depending upon the brand. Water from the tap costs about $0.00002 per ounce. If a city’s tap water is unpalatable due to chlorine treatment or other sanitizing chemicals, even the addition of a water filter to a faucet gets gallons of water for pennies a day.

Water quality is also variable in both bottled waters and public water supplies. According to the EPA, bottled water is not necessarily safer than water that flows from the tap. In fact, some bottled water is no more than treated (or untreated) tap water. Consumers are advised to read the label on bottled waters to learn the source and the method of treatment. More in-depth questions have to be addressed to the manufacturer. In contrast, specific information about public water systems, water quality and treatment are publicly available on the EPA’s website. The Environmental Working Group also has a tap water database where people can look up water quality and content by zip code.

Well Into the Future

But, the most compelling concern about water in plastic bottles is environmental. The Container Recycling institute says the amount of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles being recycled reached 1,170 million pounds in 2005 while the amount of PET bottles ending up in landfills reached 3,900 million pounds. That number includes some other beverages in PET containers but the institute says water bottles are the biggest problem. Many states offer no redemption incentives on water bottles and the plain, usually sugarless drink is just so popular.

Plastic water bottles in landfills do not rest in peace. They drift or are blown into other areas such as the Pacific Ocean where, according to CRI, they form a messy, toxic mass that is twice the size of Texas. It takes about 1,000 years for a plastic bottle to degrade into tiny pieces that, to fish and birds, often look like food. There is also increasing evidence that PET bottles and other plastic bottles may be a threat to human health.

Consumer Choice

So, what is a water-lover to do? First, the EPA and other experts advise giving your tap water a try. Some municipal systems, such as the one serving San Francisco, pour forth with crystal clear water from the High Sierra. Other communities, where there is heavy agricultural or industrial activity, may not be so fortunate. When contaminants and lead might be present, public systems use a variety of techniques to make drinking water safe. They are regulated by the EPA and frequent testing is federally mandated. That is to say the tap water is safe, but may not be taste tempting.

There are many effective filtering products on the market from faucet mounted filters to pitchers and filtered water dispensers. These devices remove contaminants and pollutants while improving the taste of water. They are quite affordable and provide families with assurance about the quality of water they use for drinking and cooking.

Once the source issue is solved, people will still want the convenience of portability. There is an increasing marketplace of containers for water, from personal water bottles made of reusable aluminum, stainless steel, ceramic and traditional glass. As awareness of the health dangers and environmental downside of plastic bottles spreads, a market-driven demand will result in even more choices for people who want fresh water at their side, wherever they may roam.

Our earth is covered by 71% water. Sounds like a lot doesn’t it? With so much water on this planet why be concerned about turning on the tap and using as much as we want? Well let’s take a closer look at what this 71% is really saying:

Of that 71%, the salt-water oceans and other large bodies hold approximately 97% of the total water.

Of the remaining water, 1.6% of the water is below ground in aquifers.

0.001% is in the air as vapor, clouds and precipitation.

Glaciers and polar ice caps hold 2.4%.

Land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds makes up only approximately 0.6%.

A very small amount of the Earth’s water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.

Of the available fresh water approximately 70 percent of freshwater is consumed by agriculture to produce food for all of us.

Some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability, a situation which has been called a water crisis by the United Nations.

No matter how you arrange the numbers it sounds grim doesn’t it? Perhaps. The sad fact is that for most people in the industrialized world, more than enough water passes within their grasp to meet the majority of their needs. At least the needs of their outdoor world. Sadly, for most of us in the modern world, it is all to often taken entirely for granted. We turn on the tap and expect it to be there, without so much as a thought of what it takes to get it there or from where it comes. Water, more precious than oil, fine gems or precious metals sustains life and has been attributed as a gift from both God and the gods (little “g”). It is fought over, rationed, monitored and carefully controlled. Yet seldom respected, protected or cherished.

The Scenario

Water flows through or lives to the point we seldom give a thought to it, especially after it has served the immediate purpose for which we summoned it. We take a drink from a glass filled with much more than we want to consume, drawn from a faucet that we have let run until the water is cool and afterward pour out, often more than we consume, the remainder to disappear into our sewers. We wash our vehicles on our dutifully paved driveways and watch as it runs off into the storm sewer, taking with it all that detracts from our symbol of status or pride like a loyal servant.

In our evermore health conscious world, we wash and rewash our hands, allowing the powerful solvent abilities of water to carry away all that might cause us biological harm, never giving thought to the fact that waters abilities are far from being utilized. We faithfully take our cleansing showers in order to maintain that “acceptable” level of personal hygiene and in the process run countless gallons of water down the drain until the over consuming shower reaches that “just right” temperature.

Outside, we have carefully planted and manicured expanses of high maintenance grass, watered and fertilized to that perfect look and our planting beds are filled with all of the most popular non-native and often exotic plants. Perhaps the beds were once covered with mulch, but it has long since broken down and weeds have become a familiar sight. We faithfully rely on automatic sprinkler systems to keep everything green and lush so that our piece of the world meets with the approval of all around us. The timers are set and everything comes on regular as clockwork regardless of the weather or need and much of the water gets applied to sidewalks and driveways that need it not.

We go back inside because we’re hungry. We get out lettuce and tomato’s and dutifully wash them under running water because we’re very health conscious and are concerned about pesticides left on our food. We rely on the cleansing power of water to carry away all that we wish not consume and are proud of our conscious decision to live healthier. After finishing our food, we dutifully put the few dishes and utensils we dirtied into the dish washer and turn it on because having dirty dishes sitting around is not cool. Having just come inside from being outdoors for our healthful walk, our clothes are dirty so we change and faithfully place them in the washer and turn it on so that dirty clothes don’t stack up.

We are proud of the fact that we surveyed the yard and everything is lush and green just as we expect it to be so that our neighbors will approve. But we failed to notice that one outdoor faucet is leaking and that our children failed to turn off the other one completely after playing with their water toys. Surveying the surroundings, we also failed to notice the puddles of water left at the bottom of that slope after the sprinkler system shut off. But all is green and lush. What’s the big deal? It’s just water – right?

Sound familiar? Sadly this occurrence is all to familiar in our comfortable industrialized societies anymore. All to often we have have become complacent and expectant of what has become a common commodity of our lives. But the reality is that water is not an unlimited resource and it does have its limitations. A reality that many have been made increasingly aware of through droughts, water rationing and strict management. Yet few of us have yet to come to the realization that wise use of water begins with each of us as individuals. We, as individuals are the single biggest user of water and wise use begins with us, our use, and expectations. Yes it true that industry and commerce are big users. But it is us, the individuals who use by far the most. Both in our personal lives and through our expectations in life.

Suggestions To Get Started

There is coming a day for all of us that this little appreciated, thought of and common resource is no longer a resource to be taken lightly and for some, that time has already come. Wise water use, like all green living, is not a thing to do, but rather a way of thinking that is developed over time and transformed into actions. It is not something that one can simply turn a switch, take a pill, or buy. But rather it is developed over time. Below is a list of suggestions to help get you started. Think of this like a test. How many do you do now? How many do you fail at? How many could you do?

Bathroom

When you are washing your hands, don’t let the water run while you lather.

If your shower can fill a one-gallon bucket in less than 20 seconds, then replace it with a low-flow shower-head. They’re inexpensive, easy to install, and can save your family more than 500 gallons a week.

Time your shower to keep it under 5 minutes. You’ll save up to 1000 gallons a month.

Install low-volume toilets.

Put food coloring in your toilet tank. If it seeps into the toilet bowl, you have a leak. It’s easy to fix, and you can save more than 600 gallons a month.

Plug the bathtub before turning the water on, then adjust the temperature as the tub fills up.

Turn off the water while you brush your teeth and save 4 gallons a minute. That’s 200 gallons a week for a family of four.

Make sure your toilet flapper doesn’t stick open after flushing.

Make sure there are aerators on all of your faucets. This decreases water flow and increases its effectiveness when washing hands, etc.

Install an instant water heater on your kitchen or bathroom sink so you don’t have to let the water run while it heats up. This will also reduce heating costs for your household.

Bathe your young children together.

If your toilet was installed prior to 1980, place a toilet dam, brick or bottle filled with water in your toilet tank to cut down on the amount of water used for each flush. Be sure these devices do not interfere with operating parts.

Turn the water off while you shampoo and condition your hair and you can save more than 50 gallons a week.

Turn off the water while you shave and you can save more than 50 gallons a week.

To save water and time, consider washing your face or brushing your teeth while in the shower.

Keep a bucket in the shower to catch water as it warms up or runs. Use this water to flush toilets or water plants.

Children

Teach your children to turn the faucets off tightly after each use.

Don’t buy recreational water toys that require a constant flow of water.

When the kids want to cool off, use the sprinkler in an area where your lawn needs it the most.

Garden

Plant during the spring or fall when the watering requirements are lower.

Use a layer of organic mulch around plants to reduce evaporation and save hundreds of gallons of water a year.

Choose a water-efficient drip irrigation system for trees, shrubs and flowers. Watering at the roots is very effective, be careful not to over water.

Water your plants deeply but less frequently to create healthier and stronger plants.

Group plants with the same watering needs together to get the most out of your watering time.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Start a compost pile. Using compost when you plant adds water-holding organic matter to the soil.

More plants die from over-watering than from under-watering. Be sure only to water plants when necessary.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Hardscape And Construction

Use porous materials for walkways and patios to keep water in your yard and prevent wasteful runoff.

Direct downspouts and other runoff towards shrubs and trees, or collect and use for your garden.

Home And Utilities

In many areas evaporative coolers are a popular form of cooling, but they require a seasonal maintenance checkup. For more efficient cooling, check your evaporative cooler annually.

Check your water meter and bill to track your water usage.

We’re more likely to notice leaky faucets indoors, but don’t forget to check outdoor faucets, pipes, and hoses for leaks.

Grab a wrench and fix that leaky faucet. It’s simple, inexpensive, and can save 140 gallons a week.

Make sure you know where your master water shut-off valve is located. This could save gallons of water and damage to your home if a pipe were to burst.

Winterize outdoor spigots when temps dip to 20 degrees F to prevent pipes from bursting or freezing.

Insulate hot water pipes so you don’t have to run as much water to get hot water to the faucet.

If you have an evaporative cooler or air conditioner, catch or direct the water drain to a flowerbed, tree, or your lawn.

Install water softening systems only when necessary. Save water and salt by running the minimum number of regenerations necessary to maintain water softness.

Listen for dripping faucets and toilets that flush themselves. Fixing a leak can save 500 gallons each month.

Have your plumber re-route your gray water to trees and gardens rather than letting it run into the sewer line. Check with your city codes, and if it isn’t allowed in your area, start a movement to get that changed.

Houseplants

If you accidentally drop ice cubes when filling your glass from the freezer, don’t throw them in the sink. Drop them in a house plant instead.

Collect the water you use for rinsing produce and reuse it to water houseplants.

When you have ice left in your cup from a take-out restaurant, don’t throw it in the trash, dump it on a plant.

Kitchen

When washing dishes by hand, don’t let the water run while rinsing. Fill one sink with wash water and the other with rinse water.

Use the garbage disposal sparingly. Compost instead and save gallons every time.

Keep a pitcher of water in the refrigerator instead of running the tap for cold drinks, so that every drop goes down you not the drain.

Wash your produce in the sink or a pan that is partially filled with water instead of running water from the tap.

When you shop for a new appliance, consider one offering cycle and load size adjustments. They are more water and energy-efficient than older appliances.

Designate one glass for your drinking water each day. This will cut down on the number of times you run your dishwasher.

Don’t use running water to thaw food.

Soak your pots and pans instead of letting the water run while you scrape them clean.

Make sure there are aerators on all of your faucets. This decreases water flow and increases its effectiveness when washing hands, etc.

Install an instant water heater on your kitchen or bathroom sink so you don’t have to let the water run while it heats up. This will also reduce heating costs for your household.

Cut back on rinsing if your dishwasher is new. Newer models clean more thoroughly than older ones.

Cook food in as little water as possible. This will also retain more of the nutrients.

Select the proper size pans for cooking. Large pans require more cooking water than may be necessary.

Throw trimmings and peelings from fruits and vegetables into your yard compost to prevent from using the garbage disposal.

Landscape

Plant during the spring or fall when the watering requirements are lower.

Use a layer of organic mulch around plants to reduce evaporation and save hundreds of gallons of water a year.

Choose a water-efficient drip irrigation system for trees, shrubs and flowers. Watering at the roots is very effective, be careful not to over water.

Reduce the amount of grass in your yard by planting shrubs, and ground cover with rock and granite mulching.

Water your plants deeply but less frequently to create healthier and stronger plants.

Group plants with the same watering needs together to get the most out of your watering time.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Next time you add or replace a flower or shrub, choose a low water use plant for year-round landscape color and save up to 550 gallons each year.

Landscape with Xeriscape trees, plants and ground covers. Call your local conservation office for more information about these water thrifty plants.

Leave lower branches on trees and shrubs and allow leaf litter to accumulate on top of the soil. This keeps the soil cooler and reduces evaporation.

More plants die from over-watering than from under-watering. Be sure only to water plants when necessary.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Laundry

Run your washing machine and dishwasher only when they are full and you could save 1000 gallons a month.

When you shop for a new appliance, consider one offering cycle and load size adjustments. They are more water and energy-efficient than older appliances.

When doing laundry, match the water level to the size of the load.

Lawns

Avoid planting turf in areas that are hard to water such as steep inclines and isolated strips along sidewalks and driveways.

Adjust your lawn mower to a higher setting. Longer grass shades root systems and holds soil moisture better than a closely clipped lawn.

Water your summer lawns one inch per week and your winter lawn one inch every two to three weeks.

Reduce the amount of grass in your yard by planting shrubs, and ground cover with rock and granite mulching.

Don’t water your lawn on windy days. After all, sidewalks and driveways don’t need water.

Only water your lawn when needed. You can tell this by simply walking across your lawn. If you leave footprints, it’s time to water. Consider installing moisture sensors.

When watering grass on steep slopes, use a soaker hose to prevent wasteful runoff.

Remember to weed your lawn and garden regularly. Weeds compete with other plants for nutrients, light, and water.

While fertilizers promote plant growth, they also increase water consumption. Apply the minimum amount of fertilizer needed.

Use a Tuna can or buy a rain gauge to track how much rain or irrigation your yard receives.

Use a screwdriver as a soil probe to test soil moisture. If it goes in easily, don’t water. Proper lawn watering can save thousands of gallons of water annually.

Avoid overseeding your lawn with winter grass. Once established, rye grass needs water every three to five days, whereas dormant Bermuda grass needs water only once a month.

Water only as rapidly as the soil can absorb the water.

Aerate your lawn. Punch holes in your lawn about six inches apart so water will reach the roots rather than run off the surface.

Miscellaneous

When you clean your fish tank, use the water you’ve drained on your plants. The water is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, providing you with a free and effective fertilizer.

Use a commercial car wash that recycles water.

Encourage your school system and local government to help develop and promote a water conservation ethic among children and adults.

Do one thing each day that will save water. Even if savings are small, every drop counts.

Drop that tissue in the trash instead of flushing it and save gallons every time.

Make suggestions to your employer to save water (and dollars) at work.

Support projects that use reclaimed waste-water for irrigation and other uses.

Encourage your friends and neighbors to be part of a water-conscious community.

Pick-up the phone and report significant water losses from broken pipes, open hydrants and errant sprinklers to the property owner or your water management district.

Outside Cleaning

Use a broom instead of a hose to clean your driveway or sidewalk and save 80 gallons or more of water every time.

Wash your car on the grass. This will water your lawn at the same time.

Use a hose nozzle and turn off the water while you wash your car and save more than 100 gallons.

Patio And Pool

Install covers on pools and spas and check for leaks around your pumps.

Periodically check your pool for leaks if you have an automatic refilling device.

Avoid installing ornamental water features and fountains that spray water into the air. Trickling or cascading fountains lose less water to evaporation.

Use a grease pencil to mark the water level of your pool at the skimmer. Check the mark 24 hours later. Your pool should lose no more than 1/4 inch each day.

Make sure your swimming pools, fountains, and ponds are equipped with recirculating pumps.

When back-washing your pool, consider using the water on your landscaping.

For hanging baskets, planters and pots, place ice cubes under the moss or dirt to give your plants a cool drink of water and help eliminate water overflow.

Regardless of size, when you drain the pool, use the water for the lawn and landscape plants. Concerned about chlorine and other pool chemicals? Leave the pool open for a few days and add a circulation pump (like a fountain pump) to circulate and agitate the water. The chlorine and other pool chemicals will naturally dissipate so the water can be safely used.

Pets

When you give your pet fresh water, don’t throw the old water down the drain. Use it to water your trees or shrubs.

Bathe your pets outdoors in an area in need of water.

Sprinklers

Check your sprinkler system frequently and adjust sprinklers so only your lawn is watered and not the house, sidewalk, or street.

Minimize evaporation by watering during the early morning hours, when temperatures are cooler and winds are lighter.

Divide your watering cycle into shorter periods to reduce runoff and allow for better absorption every time you water.

Use the sprinkler for larger areas of grass. Water small patches by hand to avoid waste.

Remember to check your sprinkler system valves periodically for leaks and keep the heads in good shape.

Install a rain shut-off device on your automatic sprinklers to eliminate unnecessary watering.

Teach your family how to shut off your automatic watering systems. Turn sprinklers off if the system is malfunctioning or when a storm is approaching.

Set a kitchen timer when watering your lawn or garden with a hose.

Use sprinklers that throw big drops of water close to the ground. Smaller drops of water and mist often evaporate before they hit the ground.

Adjust your watering schedule to the season. Summer lawns need watering less frequently than spring and fall lawns and winter lawns even less.

Travel

While staying in a hotel or even at home, consider reusing your towels.

Grey Water

Grey water is a term not heard much today, but older people will no doubt understand what it is. It basically means any water that is not fit for human consumption, but not no biologically hazardous to humans. In simpler terms, bath, laundry and dish water are all classified as “grey water”. Toilet water is not, and should only go into the public sewer or septic system. In days gone by, before governments wanted to control every facet of our lives, grey water was treated separately from toilet water. It was considered “reusable water” and routed differently from “sewer water”. Now, in the alleged interest of public safety, all “non-potable” water is routed to our public sewer or septic systems.

The truth is that grey water poses no threat to humans and in fact surrounded us, partially as in hand or dish washing, or entirely, as in a bath at some point in its life. This water can normally be reused to water lawns and gardens without harm to either plants, animals or humans. In fact, the soaps found in normal grey water is often an effective insect deterrent. The only potential harm would come from the additives that we have grown accustomed to having in our shampoos and soaps. These come in the form of fragrances, conditioners, colorings, etc. These things quite often may be desirable to us, but are not necessary in the products they come in. In fact, some have proven potentially harmful. But we still want the results regardless of the cost and manufacturers will spend countless millions of dollars annually to make us think they are a magic ingredient that will transform our lives.

In the days before chemicals, most soaps were forms of lye soap (even for bathing), which left little or no scent or conditioners, etc. These were applied afterward in the form or plant-based scents and other homemade recipes. In many studies and surveys, the results of these old methods were equal, or superior to any chemically induced results seen today and posed little potential harm to users, manufacturers or the environment. So effective were these, that many manufacturers are now attempting to go back to these simple products, but in a chemical way.

Consider using unscented products and those with the least amount of conditioners, colorings, etc. While perhaps not as convenient, these can be applied or used after we bathe, etc. if we feel they are absolutely necessary. Often, the end results of using less toxic products (or none at all) after we bathe are far superior to the results obtained by using the products with the additives included. The environment will certainly benefit from it.

Conclusion

Ours is a world of convenience. A convenience that one day may be a luxury we can not afford. As demands on our water resources increase along with the cost of producing it, feeding our vanity and convenience may become totally impractical. It is already irresponsible for all of us and unattainable for many. But change will not come come quickly or easily. It will require a dedicated effort of many small steps by all of us in order to become water efficient and wise consumers of this resource. What are you willing to do to become “water wise” and a responsible steward of this precious commodity? Are you willing to start taking those small steps toward water efficiency or are you one of the millions who will wait until you are forced to do so?  Will you be a part of the cure, or a part of the problem that our children and children’s children will have to face and correct? The choice is yours and mine. Choose wisely.

India faces a turbulent water future. Unless water management practices are changed – and changed soon – India will face a severe water crisis within the next two decades and will have neither the cash to build new infrastructure nor the water needed by its growing economy and rising population. Water is one of the critical inputs for the sustenance of mankind. It is used both terrestrial and aquatic environment for various activities, balancing the ecological system of global environment. Water is the important natural source, which is abundant in nature and cover about 2/3ds of earth surface. However, only 1% of the water resource is available as fresh water (i.e., surface water-rivers, lakes, reams, and ground water) for human consumption and other activities. The major uses of water are for irrigation (30%), thermal power plants (50%), while other uses are domestic (7%) and industrial consumption (~12%) (A. K. De, 2002).The United Nation’s report on “Water for People, Water for Life” (the first ever UN system wide evaluation on global water resources-2003) has put India a poor 120th for water quality among 122 nations covered. Only Belgium and Morocco are ranked worse than India. The quality indicator value was based on quality and quantity of fresh water (especially ground water), waste water treatment facilities, legalities like application of pollution regulations, India’s quality indicator value stood at -3.1 while for based ranked country Finland it was 1.85. The UN evaluation also ranked India 133 in a list of 180 countries for its poor water availability (1880m3 per person per year). Kuwait was ranked the poorest on water availability. Against the National average target of 135 lpcd of water and 180 lpcd per capita in large cities, the per capita availability is low and ranges from 165 lpcd in a few larger town to about 50 lpcd in most smaller towns. The availability of water in urban slums is about 27 lpcd. Urbanisation has given rise to a number of environmental problems such as water supply, wastewater generation and its collection, treatment and disposal in urban areas. In most cases wastewater is let out untreated and it either percolates into the ground and in turn contaminates the groundwater or is discharged into the natural drainage system causing pollution in downstream areas. Sewage and not the industrial pollution accounts for more than 75 per cent of the surface water contamination in India. Due to negligence, groundwater is also increasingly getting contaminated. In India less than 50% of the urban population has access to sewage disposal system. Most of the existing collecting systems discharge directly to the receiving water without treatment. Garbage, domestic and otherwise, is directly dumped into water bodies or roadside, which can often be washed into streams and lakes. The municipalities disposes off their treated or partly treated or untreated wastewater into natural drains joining rivers or lakes or used on land for irrigation or fodder cultivation or into sea or combination of these. Toxic chemicals from sewage water transfer to plants and entire in the food chain and affect public health. Pathogens occurring in the sewage water directly affect the mammals causing severe diseases. About 60 per cent of urban deaths in India are due to lack of safe drinking water facilities. Further deaths due to water borne diseases are second only to malnutrition. It is estimated that around 80% of water consumed by a household is let of to the drains of sewers as wastewater. There is substantial scope for segregated use of the water for further use for gardening, industrial cooling, street cleaning, vehicular washing, fire fighting, irrigation, yard cleaning, fountains, recreational lakes, etc. Though methods are available to improve the quality of recycled water to potable grade, the lack of social acceptance and prohibitive costs may prevent the adoption of these techniques. The importance of reuse and recycling of treated sewage and industrial effluents has been realized on account of two distinct advantages: reduction of pollution in the receiving water bodies and reduction in the requirement of fresh water for various uses. Reuse of municipal wastewater after necessary treatment to meet industrial water requirement is being practiced in India.

Thus, wastewater can be considered as both a resource and a problem. Wastewater and its nutrient content can be used extensively for irrigation and other ecosystem services. Its reuse can deliver positive benefits to the farming community, society, and municipalities. However, wastewater reuse also exacts negative externality effects on humans and ecological systems, which need to be identified and assessed. Before one can endorse wastewater irrigation as a means of increasing water supply for agriculture, a thorough analysis must be undertaken from an economic perspective as well. In this regard the comprehensive costs and benefits of such wastewater reuse should also be evaluated. Moreover, the economic effects of wastewater irrigation need to be evaluated not only from the social, economic, and ecological standpoint, but also from the sustainable development perspective.

Wastewater Characteristics

Sources of Wastewater

In general, municipal wastewater is made up of domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, storm water, and by groundwater seepage entering the municipal sewage network.

1. Domestic wastewater consists of effluent discharges from households, institutions, and commercial buildings.

2. Industrial wastewater is the effluent discharged by manufacturing units and food processing plants.

3. Unlike in some developed cities where the systems are separate, there, the municipal sewage network also serves as the storm water sewer. Due to defects in the sewerage system, there is groundwater seepage as well, adding to the volume of sewage to be disposed.

Composition of sewage water

• Organic matter

• Nutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium)

• Inorganic matter (dissolved minerals)

• Toxic chemicals (heavy metal and pesticides)

• Pathogens

Table 1. Major Constituents of Typical Domestic Wastewater

Constituent Concentration (mg/l)

Strong Medium Weak

Total solids 1200 700 350

Dissolved solids (TDS) 850 500 250

Suspended solids 350 200 100

Nitrogen (as N) 85 40 20

Phosphorus (as P) 20 10 6

Chloride 100 50 30

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 200 100 50

Grease 150 100 50

BOD5 300 200 100

Source: UN Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (1985)

Quality parameters of importance

Parameters of health significance

Organic chemicals usually exist in municipal wastewaters at very low concentrations and ingestion over prolonged periods would be necessary to produce detrimental effects on human health. This is not likely to occur with agricultural/aquacultural use of wastewater, unless cross-connections with potable supplies occur or agricultural workers are not properly instructed, and can normally be ignored. The principal health hazards associated with the chemical constituents of wastewaters, therefore, arise from the contamination of crops or groundwaters. Hillman (1988) has drawn attention to the particular concern attached to the cumulative poisons, principally heavy metals, and carcinogens, mainly organic chemicals. World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality (WHO 1984) include limit values for the organic and toxic substances given in the table – 3 based on acceptable daily intakes (ADI). These can be adopted directly for groundwater protection purposes but, in view of the possible accumulation of certain toxic elements in plants (for example, cadmium and selenium) the intake of toxic materials through eating the crops irrigated with contaminated wastewater must be carefully assessed.

Table 2. Pollutants and contaminants in wastewater and their potential impacts

Pollutants/

Contaminants Parameters Impacts

Hydrogen ion concentration pH 1. Possible adverse impact on plant growth due to acidity /alkalinity.

2. Impact sometimes beneficial to flora and fauna.

Suspended solids Volatile compounds, settable, suspended and colloidal impurities 1. Development of sludge deposit.

Dissolved inorganic substances TDS, EC, Na, Ca, Mg, Cl and B 1. Cause salinity and associated adverse impacts

2. Phytotoxicity

3. Affect permeability and soil structure

Plant food nutrients N, P, K etc.

1. Excess N causes nitrogen injury, excessive vegetative growth, delayed growth season and maturity, causing economic loss of farmers.

2. Excessive of N and P cause excessive growth of undesirable aquatic life (eutropication)

3. Nitrogen leaching causes ground water pollution with adverse health and environmental impacts.

Heavy metals Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, Ni, Zn, Ag, Hg etc, 1. Accumulate in aquatic organisms

2. Accumulate in sewage water irrigates soils and transfer to the plants and entire in the food chain and affect public health.

3. Toxic to plants and animals.

4. May make sewage water unsuitable for irrigation.

Pesticide residues Both parent molecules and metabolites 1. Ground and surface water contamination

2. Toxicity to mammals and aquatic organisms

3. residual organic compounds

4. Green-house effect.

Biodegradable organics BOD,COD 1. Depletion of D.O. in surface water.

2. Development of septic conditions.

3. Unsuitable habitat and Environment.

4. Can inhibit pond-breeding amphibians.

5. Fish death.

6. Humus build up

Source: Asano et.al. (1985)

Table 3. Organic and inorganic constituents of drinking water of

health significance

Organic Organic Inorganic

Aldrin and dieldrin 1,1 Dichlorethylene Arsenic

Benzene Heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide Cadmium

Benzo-a-pyrene Hexachlorobenzene Chromium

Carbon tetrachloride Lindane Cyanide

Chlordane Methoxychlor Fluoride

Chloroform Pentachlorophenol Lead

2,4 D Tetrachlorethylene Mercury

DDT 2, 4, 6 Trichloroethylene Nitrate

1,2 Dichloroethane Trichlorophenol Selenium

Source: WHO (1984)

Sewage water contains pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, algal etc., having the potential risks to causes diseases can causes immense harm to public health. The water borne diseases are typhoid, paratyphoid fevers, dysentery and cholera, polio and infectious hepatitis. The responsible organisms occur in the faces or urine or infected people. Where raw untreated sewage water is used to irrigate crops helminthic disease caused by Ascaris, and Trichuris spp. as occurred in West Germany. Melbourne, Australia and from Denmark (reported by Shuval et al. 1985) that cattle grazing on fields freshly irrigated with raw wastewater, or drinking from raw wastewater canals or ponds, can become heavily infected with the disease (cysticerosis).

In India sewage farm workers exposed to raw wastewater in areas where Ancylostoma (hookworm) and Ascaris (nematode) infections are endemic have significantly excess levels of infection with these two parasites compared with other agricultural workers in similar occupations.

From the health point of view important microbiological parameter are coliform , fecal coliform, fecal streptococci and clostridium perfringens. Finally, in respect of the health impact of use of wastewater in agriculture, Shuval et al. (1986) rank pathogenic agents in the order of priority shown in Table 4. They pointed out that negative health effects were only detected in association with the use of raw or poorly-settled wastewater, while inconclusive evidence suggested that appropriate wastewater treatment could provide a high level of health protection. high level of health protection.

Table 4. Relative health impact of pathogenic agents

High Risk

Helminths

(Ancylostoma, Ascaris, Trichuris and Taenia)

Medium Risk

Enteric Bacteria

(Cholera vibrio, Salmonella typhosa, Shigella etc.

Low Risk

Enteric viruses

(Shuval et al. 1986)

Indicator organisms

A) Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms. The Coliform group of bacteria comprises mainly species of the genera Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella and includes Faecal Coliforms, of which Escherichia coli is the predominant species. They are not itself harmful but presesnce of coliform groups of bacteria indicate t he presence of pathogenic bacte4ria and fecal coliforms indicate fecal contamination and presence of enteric pathogens in surrounding water. Several coliforms are able to grow out side of the intestines , specially in hot climates. Hence their enumeration is unsuitable as a parameter. The fecal coliforms can grow at 44 degree C, so E.coli, is most s satisfactory indicator parameter in sewage water use.

B) Faecal Streptococci. Faecal Streptococci as an indicator in tropical conditions and especially to compare survival with that of Salmonellae.

Clostridium perfringens. This bacterium is an exclusively faecal spore-forming anaerobe normally used to detect intermittent or previous pollution of water, due to the prolonged survival of its spores. In sewage water studies it is useful as it may have survival characteristics similar to those of viruses or even helminth eggs.

Parameters of agricultural significance

Sewage water contains soluble salts that may accumulate in the root zone with possible harmful effect on soil health and crop yield. The quality of irrigation water is of particular importance in arid zones where extremes of temperature and low relative humidity result in high rates of evaporation, with consequent deposition of salt which tends to accumulate in the soil profile. The physical and mechanical properties of the soil, such as dispersion of particles, stability of aggregates, soil structure and permeability, are very sensitive to the type of exchangeable ions present in irrigation water. Thus, when effluent use is being planned, several factors related to soil properties must be taken into consideration.

Another aspect of agricultural concern is the effect of dissolved solids (TDS) in the irrigation water on the growth of plants. Dissolved salts increase the osmotic potential of soil water and an increase in osmotic pressure of the soil solution increases the amount of energy which plants must expend to take up water from the soil. As a result, respiration is increased and the growth and yield of most plants decline progressively as osmotic pressure increases. Important Agricultural Water Quality parameters include a number of specific properties of water that are relevant in relation to the yield and quality crops, maintenance of soil productivity and protection of the environment. These parameters mainly consist of certain physical and chemical characteristics of the water. The primary wastewater quality parameters of importance from an agricultural viewpoint are:

Table 5. Guidelines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation

Potential irrigation problem Units Degree of restriction on use

None Slight to moderate Severe

Salinity

EC dS/m 3.0

TDS mg/l 2000

Specific ion toxicity

Sodium (Na)

Surface irrigation SAR 9

Chloride (Cl)

Surface irrigation me/I 10

Boron (B) mg/l 3.0

Miscellaneous effects

Nitrogen (NO3-N) mg/l 30

Bicarbonate (HCO3) me/I 8.5

pH Normal range 6.5-8.0

Source: FAO (1985)

A. pH

pH is an indicator of the acidity or basicity of water but is seldom a problem by itself. The normal pH range for irrigation water is from 6.5 to 8.4; pH values outside this range are a good warning that the water is abnormal in quality. Normally, pH is a routine measurement in irrigation water quality assessment.

B. Electrical Conductivity

Electrical conductivity is widely used to indicate the total ionized constituents of water. It is directly related to the sum of the cations (or anions). It should be noted that the electrical conductivity of solutions increases approximately 2 percent per °C increase in temperature. The symbol ECw, is used to represent the electrical conductivity of irrigation water and the symbol ECe is used to designate the electrical conductivity of the soil saturation extract. The unit of electrical conductivity is deciSiemen per metre (dS/m).

C. Total Salt Concentration

Total salt concentration (for all practical purposes, the total dissolved solids) is one of the most important agricultural water quality parameters. This is because the salinity of the soil water is related to, and often determined by, the salinity of the irrigation water. Accordingly, plant growth, crop yield and quality of produce are affected by the total dissolved salts in the irrigation water. Equally, the rate of accumulation of salts in the soil, or soil salinization, is also directly affected by the salinity of the irrigation water. Total salt concentration is expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l) or parts per million (ppm).

D. Sodium Adsorption Ratio

Sodium is an unique cation because of its effect on soil. When present in the soil in exchangeable form, it causes adverse physico-chemical changes in the soil, particularly to soil structure. It has the ability to disperse soil, when present above a certain threshold value, relative to the concentration of total dissolved salts. Dispersion of soils results in reduced infiltration rates of water and air into the soil. When dried, dispersed soil forms crusts which are hard to till and interfere with germination and seedling emergence. Irrigation water could be a source of excess sodium in the soil solution and hence it should be evaluated for this hazard. The most reliable index of the sodium hazard of irrigation water is the sodium adsorption ration, SAR. The sodium adsorption ratio is defined by the formula and the ionic concentrations are expressed in me/l.

E. Toxic Ions

Irrigation water that contains certain ions at concentrations above threshold values can cause plant toxicity problems. The most common phytotoxic ions that may be present in municipal sewage and treated effluents in concentrations such as to cause toxicity are: boron (B), chloride (Cl) and sodium (Na). Hence, the concentration of these ions will have to be determined to assess the suitability of waste-water quality for use in agriculture.

F. Trace Elements and Heavy Metals

A number of elements are normally present in relatively low concentrations, usually less than a few mg/l, in conventional irrigation waters and are called trace elements. They are not normally included in routine analysis of regular irrigation water, but attention should be paid to them when using sewage effluents, particularly if contamination with industrial wastewater discharges is suspected. These include Aluminium (Al), Beryllium (Be), Cobalt (Co), Fluoride (F), Iron (Fe), Lithium (Li), Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo), Selenium (Se), Tin (Sn), Titanium (Ti), Tungsten (W) and Vanadium (V). Heavy metals are a special group of trace elements which have been shown to create definite health hazards when taken up by plants. Under this group are included, Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Zinc (Zn). These are called heavy metals because in their metallic form, their densities are greater than 4g/cc. The threshold levels of trace elements for crop production are given in Table – 6.

Table 6. Threshold levels of trace elements for crop production

Element Recommended maximum concentration (mg/l) Remarks

Al (aluminium) 5.0 Can cause non-productivity in acid soils (pH 7.0 will precipitate the ion and eliminate any toxicity.

As (arsenic) 0.10 Toxicity to plants varies widely, ranging from 12 mg/l for Sudan grass to less than 0.05 mg/l for rice.

Cd (cadmium) 0.01 Toxic to beans, beets and turnips at concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/l in nutrient solutions. Conservative limits recommended due to its potential for accumulation in plants and soils to concentrations that may be harmful to humans.

Co (cobalt) 0.05 Toxic to tomato plants at 0.1 mg/l in nutrient solution. Tends to be inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.

Cr (chromium) 0.10 Not generally recognized as an essential growth element. Conservative limits recommended due to lack of knowledge on its toxicity to plants.

Cu (copper) 0.20 Toxic to a number of plants at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/l in nutrient solutions.

F (fluoride) 1.0 Inactivated by neutral and alkaline soils.

Fe (iron) 5.0 Not toxic to plants in aerated soils, but can contribute to soil acidification and loss of availability of essential phosphorus and molybdenum. Overhead sprinkling may result in unsightly deposits on plants, equipment and buildings.

Li (lithium) 2.5 Tolerated by most crops up to 5 mg/l; mobile in soil. Toxic to citrus at low concentrations ( 6.0 and in fine textured or organic soils.

Source: National Academy of Sciences (1972) and Pratt (1972).

Potential impacts of wastewater in environment

This section provides the potential impacts of wastewater use in various substrates

1. Public Health & Other living organism

2. Crops

3. Social Resources

4. Ground Water resources

5. Property values

6. Ecological impacts

7. Social Impacts

1. Public health& other living organisms: Use of untreated sewage water pose a high risk to human health& other living organisms in all groups as it contain pathogenic microorganisms which have the potential to cause diseases.

2. Crops

Generally speaking, wastewater (treated and untreated) is extensively used in agriculture because it is a rich source of nutrients and provides all the moisture necessary for crop growth. Most crops give higher than potential yields with wastewater irrigation; reduce the need for chemical fertilizers, resulting in net cost savings to farmers.

3. Soil Resources

Impact from wastewater on agricultural soil, is mainly due to the presence of high nutrient contents (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), high total dissolved solids and other constituents such as heavy metals, which are added to the soil over time. Wastewater can also contain salts that may accumulate in the root zone with possible harmful impacts on soil health and crop yields. The leaching of these salts below the root zone may cause soil and groundwater pollution (Bond 1999). Prolonged use of saline and sodium rich wastewater is a potential hazard for soil as it may erode the soil structure and effect productivity. This may result in the land use becoming non-sustainable in the long run. Wastewater induced salinity may reduce crop productivity (Kijne et al. 1998). The net effect on growth may be a reduction in crop yields and potential loss of income to farmers. Wastewater irrigation may lead to transport and bio-accumulate heavy metals to soils, affecting soil flora and fauna. e.g., Cd and Cu, may be redistributed by soil fauna such as earthworms (Kruse and Barrett 1985). In general, heavy metal accumulation and translocation is more a concern in sewage sludge application than wastewater irrigation, because sludge formed during the treatment process consists of concentrations of most heavy metals. The impact of wastewater irrigation on soil may depend on a number of factors such as soil properties, plant characteristics and sources of wastewater.

4. Groundwater Resources

Wastewater application has the potential to affect the quality of groundwater resources in the long run through excess nutrients and salts found in wastewater leaching below the plant root zone. For instance the quality of groundwater would determine the magnitude of the impact from leaching of nitrates. Groundwater constitutes a major source of potable water for many developing country communities. Hence the potential of groundwater contamination needs to be evaluated before embarking on a major wastewater irrigation program. In addition to the accretion of salts and nitrates, under certain conditions, wastewater irrigation has the potential to translocate pathogenic bacteria and viruses to groundwater (NRC report 1996).

Farid et al. (1993), reported that the long-term use of wastewater for crop irrigation has interestingly led to an improvement in the salinity of the groundwater. This was offset by evidence of coliform contamination of groundwater which was also observed in Mexico (Downs et al. 1999, Gallegos et al. 1999). A companion study (Rashed et al. 1995), reveals that in the wastewater irrigated Gabar el Asfar region, concentrations of chloride, sulfate, TDS, and dissolved oxygen in groundwater is much higher than average concentrations in sewage effluents. The leaching and drainage of wastewater, applied for crop irrigation, to groundwater aquifer may serve as a source of groundwater recharge. In some regions, 50-70 percent of irrigation water may percolate to groundwater aquifer (Rashed et al. 1995).

5. Ecological Impacts

When drainage water from wastewater irrigation schemes drains particularly into small confined lakes and water bodies and surface water, and if phosphates in the orthophosphate form are present, the remains of nutrients may cause eutrophication (Smith et al. 1999). For example, overloading of organic material resulting in decreases in dissolved oxygen may lead to changes in the composition of aquatic life, such as fish deaths and reduced fishery. The eutrophication potential of wastewater irrigation can be assessed using biological indices or biomarkers, which in turn can be quantified in monetary units using appropriate economic valuation techniques.

6. Social Impacts

In the context of this analysis social impacts are the concerns/doubts expressed by the public about wastewater irrigation. These concerns can be classified as follows:

General concerns such as nuisance, poor environmental quality, poor hygiene, odor, noise, higher probability of accidents, etc.

Social concerns such as food safety, health and welfare, impaired quality of life, loss of property values, and sustainability of land use.

Natural resource concerns such as pollution of vital water resources, loss of fish, wildlife, exotic species, etc.

7. Economics of Wastewater Irrigation

To date, in relation to wastewater irrigation, economic analyses have been conducted with specific perspectives in mind viz that of a municipality optimizing treatment costs, or that of farmers or a regional entity maximizing income, or that of evaluating environmental impacts.

The researchers evaluated the effect of crop selection on cost and revenue streams and system efficiency by selecting three cropping patterns viz. reed canary grass, alfalfa, corn and forest plantations. Wastewater can also be used for producing rapidly growing pulpwood, such as eucalyptus, on public lands, along canal banks, roads and greenbelts etc. These plants can be harvested every 8 to 10 years to generate revenue, along with the added advantage of working as natural air conditioners and greenhouse gas sinks, for ameliorating the highly polluted urban environments.The main benefits from wastewater irrigation are effective water and nutrient recycling, higher crop yields, a diversified cropping pattern, and disposal cost savings. Segarra et al. (1996), suggested that alfalfa, wheat-corn, wheat-grain sorghum, and cotton are optimal crop combinations to maximize net revenue. It, therefore, implies that municipalities can benefit from cooperative arrangements with neighboring farmers for wastewater irrigation. A recent IWMI study (Scott et al. 2000), evaluated the economic value and risks associated with long-term use of urban wastewater for crop irrigation in Guanajuato, Mexico. The study was conducted to predict changes in water quality under various wastewater management scenarios. The study used an opportunity cost or replacement value approach to estimate dollar values for water and nutrient contents of wastewater. The findings suggest that wastewater is a valuable resource for the community and wastewater reuse for irrigation is an economical alternative to expensive treatment. However, the study recognizes that there could be negative health and environmental impacts of wastewater use, and that these impacts should be evaluated.

Waste water treatment procedure adopted in India

 Activated sludge process

 Trickling filter

 Oxidation pond and Waste stabilization pond

Status of sewage and sewage treatment in India

The total wastewater generated by 23 metropolitan cities is 9,275 mld. Out of 9,275

mld of total wastewater generated, only 31% (2,923 mld) is treated before letting out

and the rest i.e. 6,352 mld is disposed off untreated. Three cities have only primary treatment facilities and thirteen have primary and secondary treatment facilities. In India less than 50% of the urban population has access to sewage disposal system. Most of the existing collecting systems discharge directly to the receiving water without treatment. Garbage, domestic and otherwise, is directly dumped into water bodies or roadside, which can often be washed into streams and lakes. This vulnerable environment requires special attention and the solution of such complex and interdisciplinary problems call for an integrated water resources management approach.

The municipalities (governing bodies of metropolitan cities) disposes off their treated or partly treated or untreated wastewater into natural drains joining rivers or lakes or used on land for irrigation or fodder cultivation or into sea or combination of these. In four cities, it is disposed indirectly into the rivers/lakes, while in two cities it is disposed into sea/creek and the rest partly used for agriculture and partly disposed into rivers. It is found that in 12 metropolitan cities there is some level of organized sewage farming under the control of government or local body (CPCB, August 1997).

In India, till now very little emphasis has been laid on research on hydrology of urban

areas. Taking into account that the trends of urban population concentration increase will continue in the future, a programme for encompassing all hydrological, ecological and socio-economic aspects of future urban planning and management needs to be taken up in right earnest. This would require improvement in the management of existing urban drainage systems, disseminate knowledge of integrated urban water management, identify the impact of urbanization on surface and ground water quality through point and nonpoint sources, to study impact of storm water (wastewater discharges) on ecosystem health of receiving water courses and to establish experimental urban catchments.

Water quality guidelines

From effect of sewage water several guidelines are produced to minimize the potential risk. WHO guidelines is used on the safe use of water for agriculture and aquaculture. The rationale behind the WHO guidelines was to develop criteria that would present the transmission of communicable diseases caused by microorganisms while optimizing resource conservation and recycling. Recent evidence suggest that these guidelines are used only to crop consumers but not necessarily farmers, farm workers and their families, thereby meeting this guidelines debatable. In order to evaluate the financial feasibility of WHO and USEP a microbial health guidelines, Shuval et al. (1997), developed a risk assessment approach to conduct a comparative risk analysis. Most European countries, with the exception of Germany and France, have not established any guidelines for the use of wastewater for irrigation. The EU guidelines, when formulated, propose to cover both agronomic aspects, of soil and groundwater protection, yield maximization, and the sanitary aspects, relating to public health protection.

Conclusion

Rapid urbanization places immense pressure on the world’s fragile and dwindling fresh water resources and over-burdened sanitation systems, leading to environmental degradation. Thus, it is quiet justified and seems logistic to say that:

1. Wastewater (raw, diluted or treated) is a resource of increasing global importance.

2. Without proper management sewage water use poses high risks to human health and cause environmental degradation Thus scientists around the world refocus on conserving water, recycling of water and treatment of sewage water through sewage treatment plant.

3. With proper management, wastewater use contributes significantly to sustaining livelihoods, food security and the quality of the environment.

Parameters for Water Quality Characterization & Standards

(Domestic Water Supply)

parameters USPH Standard ISI Standard

Color, odour, state Colorless, odorless, tasteless -

Inorganic Chemicals

pH 6.0-8.5 6.0-9.0

conductance 300mmho/cm -

D.O 4.0-6.0 ppm 3.0

TDS 500 -

Suspended Solid 5.0 -

SO42- 250 100

Cl- 250 600

F- 1.5 3.0

PO43- 0.1 -

S- 0.1mg/L -

Ammonia 0.5 -

B 1.0 -

Ca2+ 100 -

Mg2+ 30 -

As 0.05 0.2

Cd 0.01 -

Cr 0.05 0.05

Cu 1.0 -

Fe Less than 0.3 -

Pb Less than 0.05 0.01

Mn Less than 0.05 -

Hg 0.001 -

Ag 0.05 -

U 5.0 -

Zn 5.5 -

Organics

COD 4.0 -

Phenols 0.001 0.005

Pesticides(total) 0.005 -

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH) 0.002ppm -

Surfactants 200 -

Biological parameters

Coliform cells/1000mL 100 Less than5000

Total bacteria count/100mL 1×106

4. Sewage treatment cost studies shows that marginal cost are very high at higher levels of treatment at higher levels of treatment. However, these costs become justifiable in view of the value of the degree of water scarcity and public concern. Cost-effective and appropriate treatment suited to the end use of wastewater, supplemented by guidelines and their application.

5. Proposed guidelines should link heath, agriculture and environmental quality, which are implemented in a stepwise approach.

6. Reduction of toxic contaminants in sewage water is essential by improved management practices.

7. Where sewage water is insufficiently treated due to lack of treatment facilities there some steps should be taken, which are

(a) Development and application of guidelines for untreated wastewater use that will safe livelihoods, public health and the environment.

(b) Application of appropriate irrigation, agricultural, post-harvest, and public health practices that limit risks to farming communities, vendors, and consumers.

(c) Education and awareness programs for all stakeholders, including the public at large, to disseminate these measures.

8. Therefore, we strongly urge policy-makers and authorities in the fields of water, agriculture, aquaculture, health, environment and urban planning, as well as donors and the private sector to.

“ Safeguard and strengthen livelihoods and food security, mitigate health and environmental risks and conserve water resources by confronting the realities of wastewater use in agriculture through the adoption of appropriate policies and the commitment of financial resources for policy implementation”.

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*Correspondence to: Md. Wasim Aktar, e-mail id : wasim04101981@yahoo.co.in

Tel. No. +91-9474126188, Fax no. +91-33-2582 8407